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Appendix B: Some Additional Tools for Planners

Considerable input from rural transportation professionals and in= terest=20 regarding special topics for inclusion in this document requested=20 discussion of: transit system planning concepts, an introduction to = rural=20 intelligent transportation systems, and some consideration of access= =20 management as additional tools for rural transportation planners. Th= ese=20 topics are presented in this appendix.

A. Rural Intelligent Transportation Systems

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) represent the applicatio= n of=20 information processing, communications technologies, advanced contro= l=20 strategies, and electronics to the field of transportation.

1. Ways Rural ITS Can Help

3D"A Rural ITS applicatio= ns have the=20 potential to make dramatic improvements in safety, mobility, and tou= rist=20 information services. These applications have been categorized into = the=20 following elements:

Traveler Safety and Security: Traveler safety= and=20 security technologies use in-vehicle sensors and information syste= ms to=20 alert drivers to hazardous conditions and dangers. This also inclu= des=20 wide-area information dissemination of site-specific safety adviso= ries=20 and warnings.=20
Emergency Services: Emergency services techno= logies=20 use satellite and advanced communications systems to automatically= =20 notify the nearest police, rescue squad, or firefighters in the ev= ent of=20 collisions or other emergencies, even in the most remote locations= .=20
Tourism and Travel Information: Tourism and t= ravel=20 information services use in-vehicle navigation and roadside=20 communications systems to provide information to travelers who are= =20 unfamiliar with the local area. These services can be provided at= =20 specific locations en route or before travelers even begin their t= rip.=20
Public Traveler and Mobility Services. Public= =20 traveler and mobility services improve the efficiency of transit=20 services and their accessibility to rural residents. Better schedu= ling,=20 improved dispatching, smart card payment transactions, and compute= rized=20 ride-sharing and ride-matching systems can be achieved through adv= anced=20 vehicle locating devices and communications systems.=20
Roadway Operations and Maintenance. Roadway=20 operations and maintenance technologies improve the ability of hig= hway=20 workers to maintain and operate rural roads. These include severe= =20 weather information systems and immediate detection and alert of d= angers=20 to work zone crews.=20
Fleet Operations and Maintenance. Fleet opera= tions=20 and maintenance systems improve the efficiency of rural transit an= d=20 other rural fleets, such as snowplows and law enforcement vehicles= ,=20 through advanced vehicle tracking and on-board equipment monitorin= g=20 systems.=20
Commercial Vehicles. Commercial vehicles use= =20 satellites, computers, and communications systems to manage the mo= vement=20 and logistics of commercial vehicles, and to locate vehicles durin= g=20 emergencies and breakdowns. These technologies also assist drivers= '=20 performance - a critical concern particularly on long-haul night t= rips.=20

Rural ITS Can:

Enhance safety; improve emergency response.=20
Provide information - especially road and weather condit= ions.=20
Make public transportation more available and accessible= .=20
Enhance the tourism/recreational travel experiences.=20

2. Benefits of Rural ITS

The potential is great for rural ITS applications to address the = varied=20 needs of rural travelers. Rural ITS services can provide the followi= ng=20 benefits:

More efficient highway operations and management activities su= ch as=20 snow removal.=20
Quicker response to traffic incidents and crashes, saving live= s and=20 reducing medical costs.=20
More efficient rural transit operations and vehicle fleet=20 management.=20
Greater peace of mind from advanced safety and security system= s.=20
Better traveler information through in-vehicle communications = and=20 roadway signage, particularly for hazardous weather conditions.=20
Fewer fog-related, multi-vehicle crashes in rural areas throug= h=20 advanced sensor systems.

Resources for more information on Rural ITS are listed in Section= VII:=20 Resources for Rural Transportation Planning.

B. Transit System Planning

The following section on transit system planning was adapte= d from=20 an article published by the Community Transportation Associati= on of=20 America entitled Rural Transit Service, Design and Schedul= ing=20 (1998). This article is useful for rural transportation=20 planners and was recommended through consultations with the Fe= deral=20 Transit Administration (FTA) during development of this=20 document.

Transit system planning is important for many rural areas. = There=20 are three levels of detail possible in transit planning: aspec= ts of=20 each can be appropriate to include in the transportation plan.= All=20 three levels of transit planning require coordination with exi= sting=20 transit operating agencies if they are to be implemented. The = three=20 levels of detail are:

Strategic planning=20
Functional planning=20
Route design

At the strategic planning level, the relationship betwee= n=20 transit service and land use is developed and the type and level of= =20 service planned by corridor and area is described. As a minimum, the= =20 transportation plan should include a strategic planning level of=20 discussion of transit service. The level of detail and analysis at t= he=20 strategic planning level will vary. The level of analysis will be mo= re=20 general where there is no existing transit service.

A transit functional plan provides information on the ro= ute=20 location within the general corridor or area of service, as well as = the=20 level of service on the route in terms of headways between transit=20 vehicles. Size and seating capacity of transit vehicles by route, th= e=20 times of service, major transfer centers, and specific destinations = served=20 is also provided. This level of analysis may be available in the tra= nsit=20 plan of existing transit organizations and can be incorporated or=20 summarized into the transportation plan. You do need to coordinate w= ith=20 the transit operating agency to assure compatibility of the function= al=20 transit plan with proposed land use plans.

The transit route design plan provides specific informat= ion on=20 transit stop locations, assignment of vehicles and labor, transit=20 shelters, transit schedules, rider information, etc. Generally this = level=20 of detail is not included in the transportation plan. However, some= =20 specific design features may be included because of their=20 interrelationship to other parts of the transportation plan. As an=20 example, a specific bus stop location could pose problems to the tra= nsit=20 company, passengers, and general traffic because of high volumes,=20 inadequate room for the transit vehicle to pull-off, and hazardous=20 pedestrian crossings. The physical improvements, such as a transit c= enter,=20 and transit operations at any given location may need to be discusse= d=20 specifically in the transportation plan.

1. Types of Transit Services

Transit is a broad array of services. T= he=20 type of service can be defined using three factors:

Type and capacity of vehicle: rail, bus, van, minibus, taxi, e= tc.=20
Degree of exclusivity of right-of-way: fully shared with other= =20 traffic; partially shared (i.e., high occupancy vehicle lane); or= =20 entirely exclusive (i.e., busway or exclusive rail bed).=20
Operational strategy: routing, scheduling, and stop location.= =20

Routing refers to the assigned course t= hat=20 the transit vehicle follows. The route structure directly determines= the=20 accessibility of the transit system to the potential customer and wh= ich=20 destinations have transit service. The route structure also determin= es how=20 direct a trip is between origin and destination which effects the tr= avel=20 time. Basic routing strategies are:

Fixed-route service. Transit vehicle travels = a pre-=20 established route. Passengers are picked up or dropped off at desi= gnated=20 locations (pre-established transit stops). The route is designed t= o=20 serve the greatest number of passengers practical while providing = for as=20 direct a route as possible between two terminal points. This is th= e=20 traditional transit service provided in urban areas.=20
Route Deviation Service.Transit vehicle trave= ls a=20 basic fixed route, picking up or dropping off people anywhere alon= g the=20 route. On request the vehicle will deviate a few blocks from the f= ixed=20 route to pick up or deliver a passenger. This type of service is f= inding=20 application in rural areas.=20
Point Deviation Service.Transit vehicle stops= at=20 specified checkpoints (shopping centers, park-and-ride lot, indust= rial=20 park, etc.) at specified times, but travels a flexible route betwe= en=20 these points to service specific customer requests for service. Th= is=20 type of service is used to provide access to fixed-route service f= rom=20 very low density areas or for persons with limited mobility.=20
Many to Few Service. Although origin points m= ay be=20 anywhere in a defined service area, the destinations are limited (= i.e.,=20 airport service).=20
Many to Many Service. Within a defined servic= e=20 area, all origins and destinations are served. The vehicle travels= a=20 flexible route between origin and destination points to service sp= ecific=20 customer requests for doorstep pickup and delivery (i.e., taxi ser= vice).=20

Scheduling is the assignment of time th= at the=20 transit vehicle is available to the customer. Schedules can be=20 predetermined or fixed, or they can be responsive to customer reques= ts=20 through advance reservation or immediate request through a dispatche= r.=20 Fixed-schedule options generally provide more reliable service and s= horter=20 trip and wait times.

Stop location is the assigned geographi= cal=20 location where the transit vehicle may pick up or deliver passengers= . Stop=20 locations affect vehicle travel time, waiting time, walking distance= , and=20 general transit accessibility. There are three ways to classify loca= tions=20 of transit stops along a fixed route: local, express, and skip-stop.= These=20 are shown in Figure 5.3. Stop location is also important for flexibl= e=20 route services. Consideration is given to kinds of places a transit= =20 vehicle will stop from the standpoint of customer safety and=20 convenience.

2. Transit Planning Principles

The following transportation planning principles relate to the=20 identification of transit proposals:

The locally established transit level of service should be pro= vided=20 by the transit proposal under the forecast development scenario. T= his=20 may require one or more iterations of the transit level of service= with=20 the transit plan to assure consistency and feasibility.=20
Transit service should be planned and operated from a market b= ased,=20 user-oriented point of view. Unlike roads, one transit service doe= s not=20 necessarily serve all transit users. Potential transit markets nee= d to=20 be identified and services should be provided that are targeted to= the=20 identified market segments according to local priorities. Example= =20 transit markets include able-bodied elderly, disabled persons,=20 commuters, students, low-income persons, and tourists.=20
Consideration of operating cost and financing is critical. Unl= ike=20 roads, operating cost (labor cost) is the major portion of the cos= t of=20 transit service. New or additional service requires identification= of=20 new or additional annual revenue to support it. Development mitiga= tion=20 generally only provides for capital investment.=20
A quality access system to the transit service is necessary an= d=20 should be considered in the planning. Access to public transit by= =20 pedestrians, bicyclists, and automobile users should be easy, safe= , and=20 direct.=20
A transit system consists of more than one route. Transfers be= tween=20 routes should be considered. Unscheduled transfers are applicable = in=20 systems with frequent service. Scheduled transfers are recommended= where=20 headways between transit vehicles are long.=20
The street system should be laid out and designed to facilitat= e=20 efficient transit operations. Transit routes need to be direct and= =20 continuous. Pedestrian crossings need to be visible, wheelchair=20 accessible, and provide for adequate crossing time. Roads are desi= gned=20 to accommodate heavy- weight and large vehicle requirements. Bus=20 pullouts should be considered and bus shelters should be considere= d in=20 rural areas where bus stops are infrequent.

Transit and land development should be designed to complement eac= h=20 other. The following principles apply:

The transit system design needs to be consistent with the=20 development pattern. Higher residential densities require higher l= evels=20 of transit service in terms of availability, frequency, coverage, = and=20 connectivity to important destinations.=20
Planned land use patterns should support the transit plan. Tra= nsit=20 compatible land uses need to be located within existing urban cent= ers=20 supported by transit service or near a transit facility or route.= =20

Transit and site design should be designed to complement each oth= er.=20 The following principles apply:

Land uses need to be oriented to transit facilities. Building= =20 entrances and paved walkways need to lead directly to a transit st= op, a=20 park-and-ride lot, or a station. Pedestrian amenities (e.g., plaza= s,=20 covered areas, moderate grades, sidewalks, benches, lighting) enco= urage=20 transit use.=20
Walking distances need to be pedestrian scale. Walking distanc= e from=20 building entrances to transit facilities is affected by building=20 setback. Smaller set backs reduce the walking distance and encoura= ge,=20 transit use.=20
Parking should be shifted to the rear and sides of buildings w= hen=20 the building fronts on a transit facility. Large parking lots betw= een a=20 building entrance and a transit stop discourage pedestrian access.= =20 Parking requirements can be reduced if good transit service is pro= vided.=20

Many resources on transit system planning are available through t= he=20 Transportation Research Board (TRB) http://wwwcf.fhwa.dot.gov/exit.cfm?link=3Dhttp://gulliver.trb.org/= =20 and the Community Transportation Association of America (CTAA) http://wwwcf.fhwa.dot.gov/exit.cfm?link=3Dhttp://www.ctaa.org/.

C. Access Management

This section defines and explains the importance access managemen= t for=20 rural transportation planning.

1. What is Access Management?

3D"A Access management is defined as th= e process of=20 providing access to developed land located adjacent to a highway sys= tem.=20 Generally state DOTs and local agencies manage the design, location = and=20 supporting facilities for access points. Access management contribut= es to=20 how well vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrians can enter and exit comm= ercial=20 and residential areas adjacent to highways or arterials.

Good access is a function of the design and location of driveways= and=20 arterials. Improved access is dependent on: the location of the=20 driveway/arterial with reference to other access points, the motoris= ts'=20 ability to easily access the property or road, and the placement of= =20 traffic signals. Poorly designed and located driveways and arterials= can=20 severely affect traffic safety, road capacity and traffic speed. Poi= nts of=20 conflict also increase if traffic signals are too close together or = are=20 uncoordinated. If the driveway or arterial is too close to an anothe= r=20 access point motorists traffic congestion and number of conflicts=20 increase.

2. What are the Benefits of Access Management?

The key to access management is planning for the number and locat= ion of=20 access points rather than responding to requests by local government= s or=20 developers. In other words, it is far better to have planned access = as=20 opposed to access that is the result of reactions to local governmen= ts and=20 developers. Planned access can be based on an overall strategy for a= ccess=20 that results in better decisions.

Four main benefits support managing access to highways. Access=20 management:

Minimizes access-related accidents. Points of= =20 conflict increase as areas along the highway become more commercia= lized=20 and densely populated. Each new access point added to an undivided= =20 highway in an urban and suburban area increases the annual acciden= t rate=20 by 11 to 18 percent on that highway segment. In rural areas, each = access=20 point added increases the annual accident rate by seven percent.=20 Well-managed access points can improve user safety by reducing the= =20 number, severity and cost of access-related accidents. For example= ,=20 increased spacing between driveways minimizes conflict by allowing= =20 motorists more time to anticipate and recover from turning traffic= .=20 Minimizing the speed differences between turning cars and through= =20 traffic reduces conflicts between cars, pedestrians and bicycles.= =20
Preserves our mobility and investments. Highw= ays=20 and roads represent a major public investment. The federal governm= ent,=20 the state, local governments, and the general public have invested= =20 millions of dollars in statewide highway resources to move trucks = and=20 vehicles efficiently. Poorly designed access points increase conge= stion=20 and the number of accidents that reduce speeds. Good access manage= ment=20 preserves capacity by moving motorists out of lanes efficiently to= =20 increase continuous traffic flows and reduce conflict points.=20
Preserves and plans for healthy economic=20 development. Managing access not only increases regional= =20 mobility but also extends the life of existing roads. Public inves= tment=20 is best preserved by maximizing the use of existing facilities. If= more=20 vehicles can be moved on existing roads, construction costs can be= =20 minimized on unnecessary facilities. Arterial roads can carry many= more=20 vehicles each day using good access management processes. Also, pl= anning=20 and designing access areas early in the project improves the alloc= ation=20 of scarce resources. As communities grow, it becomes increasingly= =20 expensive to redesign poorly planned access points. Funds that wou= ld=20 otherwise be spent on maintenance or operation of existing roadway= s are=20 spent on curbside and driveway construction and widening roads.=20
Maintains functional integrity of the highway=20 system. A consistent statewide access management approach= best=20 protects the functional integrity of the state highway system. Thi= s=20 approach, based upon best engineering practices and coordinated lo= cal=20 participation, provides improved driveway location and design for= =20 growing communities. Central to this approach is a core access=20 classification system that defines the desired level and location = of=20 access for communities adjacent to the highway system. Standardize= d=20 policies and procedures also help to ensure government decisions a= re=20 consistent and fair across the state. Developers, investors and th= e=20 general public benefit from this increased predictability for the= =20 development process. Uniform access design standards minimize cost= s=20 associated with redesign and promote fair method to manage new=20 development.

Managed access is most successful when the state, local decision-= makers=20 and residents support and coordinate actions. The state and local=20 governments should invite investors and the general public to become= =20 involved in access management decisions and in promoting and develop= ing=20 strong access management practices.

These practices include identifying when and where developers sho= uld be=20 responsible for the payment of access improvements that address safe= ty and=20 capacity issues. For example, implementing specific procedures for=20 conducting a traffic impact analysis would determine land owner=20 responsibilities for signals, turning bays, and other design feature= s that=20 provide safe and efficient access. Provisions could be established f= or=20 waiving the cost or need for such studies.

Resources for more information on Access Management are listed in= =20 Section VII: Resources for Rural Transportation Planning.

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Spencer Stevens, spencer.stevens@dot.gov,= =20 717-221-4512

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